India's Cultural Roots

A. The Big Questions A rishi (from Hampi, Karnataka) | The Buddha (from Bhutan) | Mahāvīra (from Bihar) Our Cultural Heritage and Knowledge Traditions Indian culture, by any estimate, is several millenniums old.

D. Like any ancient tree, it has many roots and many branches.

C. And from the trunk emerge many branches, which are different manifestations of Indian culture, yet united by a common trunk.

B. Some of these branches are about art, literature, science, medicine, religion, the art of governance, martial arts, and so on.

A. There are also ‘schools of thought’, by which we mean groups of thinkers or spiritual seekers who share similar ideas about human life, the world, etc.

D. Many archaeologists and scholars have pointed out that some of India’s cultural roots go all the way to the Indus or Harappan or Sindhu-Sarasvatī civilisation (which we visit in Chapter 6).

C. Later on, over time, hundreds of schools of thought emerged in India.

B. We will see here a few early schools, which have shaped India into a country with a unique personality.

A. By understanding them and their roots, we can understand ‘India, that is Bharat’ better.

D. The word “Veda” comes from the Sanskrit vid which means ‘knowledge’ (hence vidyā, for instance).

C. We briefly mentioned the Ṛig Veda in earlier chapters.

B. In fact, there are four Vedas — the Ṛig Veda, the Yajur Veda, the Sāma Veda and the Atharva Veda.

A. They are the most ancient texts of India, and indeed among the most ancient in the world.

D. The Vedas consist of thousands of hymns — prayers in the form of poems and songs — that were recited orally, not written.

C. Those hymns were composed in the Sapta Sindhavaregion (which we visit in Chapter 5).

B. It is difficult to say when exactly the Ṛig Veda, the most ancient of the four, was composed; experts have proposed dates ranging from Spiritual: Concerned with the spirit or soul (ātman in Sanskrit and many Indian languages).

A. Spirituality is the search for a deeper or higher dimension beyond our current personality.

D. Seeker: Someone who seeks the truths of this world.

C. This could be a sage, a saint, a yogi, a philosopher, etc.

B. UNESCO: UNESCO stands for ‘United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization’.

A. It promotes dialogue between people and nations through education, science and culture.

D. Cosmos: The world or the universe as an ordered and harmonious system. the 5th to the 2nd millennium BCE.

C. So, for anything between to memory through rigorous training and passed on orally with hardly any alterations!

B. The Vedic hymns were composed by rishis (male seers or sages) and rishikas (female ones) in an early form of the Sanskrit language.

A. They were addressed in poetical form to many deities (gods or goddesses), such as Indra, Agni, Varuṇa, Mitra, Sarasvatī, Uṣhas, and many more.

D. Together with the seers, these deities sustained ṛitam, or truth and order in human life and in the ‘cosmos’.

C. The early rishis and rishikas saw those gods and goddesses as one, not separate beings.

B. As one famous hymn puts it, ekam sat viprā bahudhā vadanti...

A. The Existent [that is, the supreme reality] is one, but sages give it many names.

D. In this worldview, some values were especially important, beginning with ‘Truth’, which was often another name for God.

C. The last mantras (verses) of the Ṛig Veda also call for unity among people: Worldview: A certain view or under- standing of the world, its origin, or its workings.

B. Our Cultural Heritage and Knowledge Traditions b.

A. Vedic society Early Vedic society was organised in different janas or ‘clans’, that is, larger groups of people.

D. The Ṛig Veda alone lists over 30 such janas — for instance, the Bharatas, the Purus, the Kurus, the Yadus, the Turvaśhas etc.

C. Each clan was associated with a particular region of the northwest part of the Subcontinent.

B. Come together, speak together; common be your mind, may your thoughts agree...

A. United be your purpose, united your heart... may your thoughts be united, so all may agree!

D. BCE BCE BCE CE CE Births of Buddha and Mahāvīra Upanishads Vedic schools of thought Healer: Someone who uses traditional practices to relieve or heal diseases.

C. Not much is known of how these janas governed their society.

B. The Vedas only give us a few clues through words like rājā (a king or ruler), sabhā and samiti, both of which refer to a collective gathering or assembly.

A. Many professions are mentioned in the Vedic texts, such as agriculturist, weaver, potter, builder, carpenter, healer, dancer, barber, priest, etc.

D. Vedic schools of thought Vedic culture also developed many rituals (yajña, often read as ‘yagya’) directed towards various deities (gods or goddesses) for individual or collective benefit and wellbeing.

C. Daily rituals were generally in the form of prayers and offerings to Agni, the deity associated with fire, but those rituals became more and more complex in the course of time.

B. A group of texts known as ‘Upaniṣhads’ built upon Vedic concepts and introduced new ones, such as rebirth (taking birth again and again) and karma (our actions or their results).

A. According to one school of thought, generally known as ‘Vedanta’, everything — human life, nature and the universe — is one divine essence called brahman (not to be confused with the god Brahmā) or sometimes just tat (‘that’).

D. Two well-known mantras express this in a simple but profound way: Our Cultural Heritage and Knowledge Traditions aham brahmāsmi “I am brahman” (that is to say, I am divine) tat tvam asi...

C. “You are That” The Upaniṣhads also introduced the concept of ātman or Self — the divine essence that resides in every being but is ultimately one with brahman.

B. It follows that everything in this world is connected and interdependent.

A. This explains a common prayer that begins with sarve bhavantu sukhinah, or “May all creatures be happy”, and goes on to wish them all to be free from disease and sorrow.

D. Early in the 1 st millennium BCE, several more schools of thought grew out of the Vedas.

One of them was Yoga, which developed methods intended to achieve the realisation of brahman in one’s consciousness. Together, these schools of thought became the foundations for what we call ‘Hinduism’ today.

Together, these schools of thought became the foundations for what we call ‘Hinduism’ today. Buddhism Other schools of thought also emerged, which did not accept the authority of the Vedas and developed their own systems.

Buddhism Other schools of thought also emerged, which did not accept the authority of the Vedas and developed their own systems. About two-and-a-half millenniums ago, a young prince named Siddhārtha Gautama was born in Lumbini (today in Consciousness: The quality or state of being aware, for instance of something within oneself.

About two-and-a-half millenniums ago, a young prince named Siddhārtha Gautama was born in Lumbini (today in Consciousness: The quality or state of being aware, for instance of something within oneself. Many stories from the Upaniṣhads tell us the importance of asking questions, whether these questions come from men, women or children. Śhvetaketu and the seed of reality (Chhāndogya Upaniṣhad) Rishi Uddālaka Āruṇi sent his son, Śhvetaketu, to a gurukula to learn the Vedas.

Many stories from the Upaniṣhads tell us the importance of asking questions, whether these questions come from men, women or children. Śhvetaketu and the seed of reality (Chhāndogya Upaniṣhad) Rishi Uddālaka Āruṇi sent his son, Śhvetaketu, to a gurukula to learn the Vedas. When Śhvetaketu returned 12 years later, his father realised he had become very proud of his learning.

When Śhvetaketu returned 12 years later, his father realised he had become very proud of his learning. So Uddālaka tested him with questions on the nature of brahman, which Śhvetaketu could not answer.

So Uddālaka tested him with questions on the nature of brahman, which Śhvetaketu could not answer. Uddālaka proceeded to explain how brahman, though invisible, is everywhere, just as the seed of a banyan fruit seems empty when you open it, but already contains the future banyan tree; or just as all kinds of different pots can be made out of the same clay.

Uddālaka proceeded to explain how brahman, though invisible, is everywhere, just as the seed of a banyan fruit seems empty when you open it, but already contains the future banyan tree; or just as all kinds of different pots can be made out of the same clay. Similarly, everything around us has emerged from the same essence — brahman.

Similarly, everything around us has emerged from the same essence — brahman. He concluded his teaching with these words, “Everything consists of this subtle essence....

He concluded his teaching with these words, “Everything consists of this subtle essence.... You are That, Śhvetaketu.” Nachiketa and his quest (Kaṭha Upaniṣhad) Once, a man was giving away all his possessions in a ritual.

You are That, Śhvetaketu.” Nachiketa and his quest (Kaṭha Upaniṣhad) Once, a man was giving away all his possessions in a ritual. As his son Nachiketa kept asking him which god he would be offered to, the father became angry and answered, “I give you to Yama” — that is, to the god of death.

As his son Nachiketa kept asking him which god he would be offered to, the father became angry and answered, “I give you to Yama” — that is, to the god of death. Nachiketa, then, proceeded to Yama’s world and, after a long wait, met the mighty god.

Nachiketa, then, proceeded to Yama’s world and, after a long wait, met the mighty god. Pleased, Yama explained that the ātman, or self, is hidden within all creatures.

Pleased, Yama explained that the ātman, or self, is hidden within all creatures. It is neither born, nor does it die; it is immortal.

It is neither born, nor does it die; it is immortal. Having acquired this profound knowledge, Nachiketareturned to his father, who welcomed him joyfully.

Having acquired this profound knowledge, Nachiketareturned to his father, who welcomed him joyfully. The debate of Gārgī and Yājñavalkya (Bṛihadāraṇyaka Upaniṣhad) Once, the wise king Janaka announced a prize for the winner of a philosophical debate. Yājñavalkya, arenowned rishi, came to the king’s court and defeated many scholars until Gārgī, a rishika, asked him a series of questions on the nature of the world, and finally on the nature of brahman.

Yājñavalkya, arenowned rishi, came to the king’s court and defeated many scholars until Gārgī, a rishika, asked him a series of questions on the nature of the world, and finally on the nature of brahman. At that point, Yājñavalkya asked her to stop asking further questions. Later, however, Gārgī resumed her questions and Yājñavalkya went on to explain how brahman is what makes the world, the seasons, the rivers and everything else possible.

Later, however, Gārgī resumed her questions and Yājñavalkya went on to explain how brahman is what makes the world, the seasons, the rivers and everything else possible. Ascetic: Someone who engages in a rigorous discipline to attain a higher consciousness. Attachment: The condition of having a bond with someone or something, usually through sentiment or habit.

Attachment: The condition of having a bond with someone or something, usually through sentiment or habit. Depending on the sources they use, scholars have come up with widely different conclusions as regards the precise year of his birth. In Chapter 4, we chose 560 BCE as an approximate year.

In Chapter 4, we chose 560 BCE as an approximate year. In any case, it makes no difference to our story here. As the story goes, then, Siddhārtha Gautama grew up living a protected life in the palace.

As the story goes, then, Siddhārtha Gautama grew up living a protected life in the palace. One day, at the age of 29, he asked to be driven through the city in a chariot, and for the first time in his life came across an old man, a sick man, and a dead body. He also saw an ascetic, who appeared to be happy and at peace.

He also saw an ascetic, who appeared to be happy and at peace. Following this experience, Siddhārtha decided to give up his palace life, leaving behind his wife and son. Travelling on foot as an ascetic, meeting other ascetics and scholars, he searched for the root cause of suffering in human life.

Travelling on foot as an ascetic, meeting other ascetics and scholars, he searched for the root cause of suffering in human life. After meditating for many days under a pipal tree at Bodh Gaya (today in Bihar), he attained enlightenment; he realised that avidyā (ignorance) and attachment are the source of human suffering and conceived a method to remove these two causes. Siddhārtha, then, became known as the ‘Buddha’, which means the ‘enlightened’ or ‘awakened’ one.

Siddhārtha, then, became known as the ‘Buddha’, which means the ‘enlightened’ or ‘awakened’ one. The Buddha started teaching what he had realised, including the idea of ahimsa, which is generally translated as ‘non- violence’, but originally means ‘non-hurting’ or ‘non-injuring’. He also insisted on a sincere inner discipline.

He also insisted on a sincere inner discipline. The following saying of his expresses this simply: The Buddha teaching (Ajanta caves) Our Cultural Heritage and Knowledge Traditions The Buddha founded the Sangha, a community of bhikṣhus or monks (and, later, bhikṣhuṇīs or nuns) who dedicated themselves to practising and spreading his teachings. His influence on India, and indeed the whole of Asia, was enormous, as we will discover later; it is still perceptible today.

His influence on India, and indeed the whole of Asia, was enormous, as we will discover later; it is still perceptible today. “Not by water is one made pure, though many people may bathe here [in sacred rivers]. But one is pure in whom truth and dharmareside. Conquering oneself is greater than conquering a thousand men on the battlefield a thousand times.” Monk: A man who, giving up the usual life in the world, dedicates himself to religious or spiritual pursuits. A monk usually takes vows, that is, commits himself tofollow strict rules for a disciplined life.

A monk usually takes vows, that is, commits himself tofollow strict rules for a disciplined life. Nun: The female equivalent of a monk. This stone panel, some 1,800 years old, shows the Buddha teaching. Jainism Jainism is another important school of thought that became widespread at the same time, although its roots are said to be much more ancient. Just like Siddhārtha Gautama, Prince Vardhamāna was born into a royal family in the early 6 th century BCE.

Just like Siddhārtha Gautama, Prince Vardhamāna was born into a royal family in the early 6 th century BCE. His birthplace was near the city of Vaiśhālī, in modern-day Bihar. At the age of 30, he decided to leave his home and go in search of spiritual knowledge. He practised an ascetic discipline and, after 12 years, achieved ‘infinite knowledge’ or supreme wisdom. He became known as ‘Mahāvīra’, or ‘great hero’, and started preaching what he had realised.

He became known as ‘Mahāvīra’, or ‘great hero’, and started preaching what he had realised. This does not refer to the conquest of territory or enemies, but to the conquest of ignorance and attachments, so as to reach enlightenment. Jain teachings include ahimsa, anekāntavāda and aparigraha. These ideas, shared to a large extent with Buddhism and the Vedantic school of thought, are central A traditional painting of Mahāvīra Our Cultural Heritage and Knowledge Traditions to Indian culture. The first may be illustrated by this saying of Mahāvīra: “All breathing, existing, living, sentient creatures should not be slain, nor treated with violence, nor abused, nor tormented, nor driven away.” Let us define the last two in simple terms: ƒ Anekāntavāda means ‘not just one’ aspect or perspective.

The first may be illustrated by this saying of Mahāvīra: “All breathing, existing, living, sentient creatures should not be slain, nor treated with violence, nor abused, nor tormented, nor driven away.” Let us define the last two in simple terms: ƒ Anekāntavāda means ‘not just one’ aspect or perspective. That is, the truth has many aspects and cannot be fully described by any single statement. ƒ Aparigraha means ‘non-possession’ and advises detachment from material possessions, limiting oneself to what is truly necessary in life. Jainism also insists on the interconnectedness and interdependence of all creatures, from humans to invisible organisms, as they support each other and cannot live without one another. Scientists studying nature, flora and fauna, have again and again confirmed this deep truth. The Jātaka tales, which have delighted generations of Indian children and adults, tell stories of the Buddha’s former births and express in simple terms the Buddhist values.

The Jātaka tales, which have delighted generations of Indian children and adults, tell stories of the Buddha’s former births and express in simple terms the Buddhist values. In a well-known tale, the Buddha was the king of a large troop of monkeys. They lived near a huge tree which bore fruit of divine fragrance and taste. Despite the monkey- king’s instructions that nofruit should escape, one day a ripe fruit fell into the stream below. Carried by the current, it was A stone panel (at Bharhut in Madhya Pradesh) depicting the story of the monkey-king caught in a net and taken to the palace.

Carried by the current, it was A stone panel (at Bharhut in Madhya Pradesh) depicting the story of the monkey-king caught in a net and taken to the palace. The king was so enchanted by its taste that he ordered his soldiers to locate the tree it came from. After a long search, they found the tree — and the monkeys enjoying the tree’s fruits. The only way for the monkey-king to save his monkeys was to help them cross the stream, but they could not do so on their own. Being much larger than them, the monkey-king caught hold of a tree on the other bank and let them use his body as a bridge to cross the stream, although he was severely bruised in the process and eventually died.